The 19th century was a time of huge industrial and political change in western Europe, yet Russia trailed behind in its development (energy forms, transport, medicine and health, education, etc). Despite this, it was still considered a'great' power due to its size and social structure.
Russia trailed behind the rest of Europe in many aspects. Despite industrial change occurring elsewhere before this time, it was until the 1890s that this change started to emerge in Russia. The Russian economy in 1855 was predominately rural, with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers, compared to the 2:1 experienced by Britain at this time. 83% of British and French adults were literate, in comparison to only 28% of Russian adults, and it was the only country in Europe which still didn't have a parliament in 1900.
Serfdom in western and central Europe had disappeared after 1848 revolutions, yet still in Russia up to 1861 and many aspects of it continued up to 1917.
Russia trailed behind the rest of Europe in many aspects. Despite industrial change occurring elsewhere before this time, it was until the 1890s that this change started to emerge in Russia. The Russian economy in 1855 was predominately rural, with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers, compared to the 2:1 experienced by Britain at this time. 83% of British and French adults were literate, in comparison to only 28% of Russian adults, and it was the only country in Europe which still didn't have a parliament in 1900.
Serfdom in western and central Europe had disappeared after 1848 revolutions, yet still in Russia up to 1861 and many aspects of it continued up to 1917.
Why was Russia so backwards?
In the 19th century the Russian empire comprised 21 million square kilometres of Europe and Asia, twice the size of Europe and a sixth of the world's surface. Despite this size,over two-thirds of this area fell north of the 50th parallel, consisting of vast barren, inhospitable areas, tundras and forests. Poor communication between different parts of the empire meant that despite being a leader exporter of agricultural produce and possessing vast reserves of timber, coal, oil, gold and other precious metals, much of its potential was untapped.
The people
Another stumbling block for Russian development was the many different cultural groups living within the empire, each with its own culture, customs, language and, in some cases, religion. Less than half the total population of 69 million people in 1855 was Russian.
In 1855, 85% of the population were peasants, and the majority of these were serfs. Most peasants were illiterate, but deeply religious and inclined to be superstitious. They were tied to their communes or mirs where they farmed their allotted strips of land. By western standards, their way of life was primitive, sharing their dwellings with their animals.
In 1855, 85% of the population were peasants, and the majority of these were serfs. Most peasants were illiterate, but deeply religious and inclined to be superstitious. They were tied to their communes or mirs where they farmed their allotted strips of land. By western standards, their way of life was primitive, sharing their dwellings with their animals.
Russia did have some cities and towns, though they were mostly small market or administrative centres. The largest city was the capital St Petersburg, with half a million inhabitants.
There was no real middle class. Instead there was an educated intelligentsia - most often the sons of nobles, who were the minor government officials, doctors, lawyers and teachers.
Primarily, Russia society was divided between the wealthy landowners who, whilst only comprising 10% of the population, owned 75% of the land.
There was no real middle class. Instead there was an educated intelligentsia - most often the sons of nobles, who were the minor government officials, doctors, lawyers and teachers.
Primarily, Russia society was divided between the wealthy landowners who, whilst only comprising 10% of the population, owned 75% of the land.
the tsar
At the head of this vast empire was the tsar, the 'Emperor and Autocrat of all Russia'. According to the 'Collected Laws of the Russian Empire' compiled by Nicholas I in 1832: 'The Emperor of all the Russias is an autocratic and unlimited monarch; God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power, not only out of fear but also out of conscience.'
The tsar was the titular head of the Russian Orthodox Church and was regarded by believers as being the embodiment of god on earth, as such Russians were taught to express devotion to their tsar and accept their working and living conditions as the will of god. The church and state structures were entwined, with tsarist control over many aspects of the church.
The tsar's imperial edicts or ukase, were the law of the land. Whilst the tsar did have advisors and ministers, they were chosen by the tsar himself and could do nothing without his approval. The tsarist regime also depended on the provincial nobility for support.
The tsar had at his disposal the world's largest army of about 1.5 million conscripted serfs, each forced into service for 25 years and made to live in a military colony. The higher ranks of the military were prestigious posts, reserved for the nobles. The tsar also had elite regiments of mounted cossacks who acted as personal body guards to the tsar and as police reinforcements.
To maintain the autocracy, Russia was a police state. This meant that there was no freedom of speech, freedom of the press, or freedom to travel overseas. Censorship occurred at every level of government. The Third Section security network kept a strict surveillance over the population and had unlimited powers to carry out raids, arrest and ensure the imprisonment or exile of anyone suspected of anti-tsarist behaviour. Tax exemptions meant that 90% of government funding came from peasants.
Uprisings, such as the Decembrist revolt of 1825 and political and ideological unrest in other parts of Europe, resulted in tighter and often severe restrictions rather than a rethinking of values.
And so, when Alexander took the throne in 1855 Russia was facing a dilemna - how to modernise and still maintain control.
The tsar was the titular head of the Russian Orthodox Church and was regarded by believers as being the embodiment of god on earth, as such Russians were taught to express devotion to their tsar and accept their working and living conditions as the will of god. The church and state structures were entwined, with tsarist control over many aspects of the church.
The tsar's imperial edicts or ukase, were the law of the land. Whilst the tsar did have advisors and ministers, they were chosen by the tsar himself and could do nothing without his approval. The tsarist regime also depended on the provincial nobility for support.
The tsar had at his disposal the world's largest army of about 1.5 million conscripted serfs, each forced into service for 25 years and made to live in a military colony. The higher ranks of the military were prestigious posts, reserved for the nobles. The tsar also had elite regiments of mounted cossacks who acted as personal body guards to the tsar and as police reinforcements.
To maintain the autocracy, Russia was a police state. This meant that there was no freedom of speech, freedom of the press, or freedom to travel overseas. Censorship occurred at every level of government. The Third Section security network kept a strict surveillance over the population and had unlimited powers to carry out raids, arrest and ensure the imprisonment or exile of anyone suspected of anti-tsarist behaviour. Tax exemptions meant that 90% of government funding came from peasants.
Uprisings, such as the Decembrist revolt of 1825 and political and ideological unrest in other parts of Europe, resulted in tighter and often severe restrictions rather than a rethinking of values.
And so, when Alexander took the throne in 1855 Russia was facing a dilemna - how to modernise and still maintain control.